Jnana Yoga in the Yoga Sutras and Samkhya

In an earlier article, I presented the basic concepts of Jnana Yoga which are largely identified with the philosophy of Vedanta. However, some of the main concepts in Jnana Yoga are also to be found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali as well as the Philosophy of Samkhya.

As is common in most systems of Indian philosophy, the goal of all spiritual pursuit is the attainment of self-realization which can liberate one from the continuous cycle of transmigration.

Before discussing the concepts of Jnana yoga in the Yoga Sutras and Samkhya, it is important to understand some key differences between Vedanta and Yoga/Samkhya. As we saw in the previous article, the non-dual (Advaita) Vedanta school recognizes only one reality known as Brahman (supreme consciousness). This material creation consisting of conscious (Chetana) and non-conscious (achetana or jada) elements is simply an appearance in the space of consciousness (Brahman). This appearance is temporary as it has a beginning and an end. That is why it is also known as Māyā or an illusion. In yoga/Samkhya, however, there are two realities – Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (source of material creation). In this system, Purusha represents consciousness. Prakriti (also known as Mula Prakriti or Pradhana), while having no consciousness of its own, functions based on consciousness “borrowed” or “reflected” from Purusha.

Another major difference is that in Vedanta there is just one consciousness – Brahman. In yoga, on the other hand, there is plurality of Purushas. In Yoga, each living entity is its own independent Purusha. Each Purusha is bound to Prakriti due to Avidya (ignorance). Through the practices of yoga, only the Purusha identified with a single physical being is liberated (attains the state of Kaivalya).

Despite some of these differences, the final goal is similar in both Vedanta and Yoga – realization of the Self. Yoga and Samkhya being dualistic, the goal is to understand the independence of Purusha from Prakriti. Vedanta takes it a step further by claiming that Purusha, the individual Self (known as jiva) and Brahman, the supreme consciousness, are one and the same.

Let us take a closer took at the concept of Jnana (knowledge/wisdom) in the context of yoga/Samkhya.

In the ensuing discussion, I’ll be referring to the texts, Yoga Sutras by Patanjali (YSP) for yoga and Samkhya Karika (SK) for Samkhya. In the very first karika¹ , the author states that we are all interested in getting rid of the three kinds of suffering. Even though not mentioned in SK, the three types of sufferings referred to are:

1. Ādhyātmikam (internal)
   1. Physical – (As per Ayurveda) caused by the imbalance of the doshas – vāta, pitta, kapha; fever; physical pain
   2. Mental – separation from loved one; inability to get rid of object of dislike; six enemies (shad-ripu) – lust, anger, greed, infatuation, arrogance, jealousy; fear; grief etc.
2. Ādhibhautikam (external) – caused by man, beast, birds, reptiles, plants and other inanimate objects
3. ādhidaivikaṁ (divine) – cyclone, tsunami, fire, plague, flood, famine etc.

In the second karika² , it is mentioned that these three kinds of suffering can be completely and permanently eliminated through a clear and complete understanding (vijnana) of the unmanifest (mula prakriti), manifest (the complete set of the 23 evolutes of prakriti) and the knower (Purusha – consciousness). To get an understanding of these terms, known as ‘tattvas’ (elements), please read a summary of Samkhya philosophy on my blog here.
As you will notice, the emphasis is on the word “vijnana” (jnana with the prefix ‘vi’) which implies special or complete “jnana” (knowledge). We can think of these two karikas as forming the basis of “jnana yoga” discussed both in Samkhya and yoga. The rest of SK is devoted to a detailed explanation of these 25 elements (tattvas) with the goal to recognize the separation between purusha and prakriti.

Let us turn our attention to YSP and see how Patanjali addresses the concepts of jnana and liberation.

As we saw earlier, as per the Samkhya philosophy, suffering can be eliminated by developing a deep understanding of the 25 tattvas (elements). In the YSP, Patanjali also discusses the concept of suffering (dukha) adopting an approach similar to the four noble truths in Buddhism:

1. Dukkha (suffering): This life is full of suffering
2. Dukkha samudaya (reason for suffering): lustful cravings (trishna) lead to suffering
3. Dukkha nirodha (end of suffering): It is possible to put an end to this suffering
4. Nirodhagamini pratipad (path to freedom from dukkha): Buddha gives the eight-fold path to eliminate dukkha

In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali has used a slightly different terminology to present an identical viewpoint:

1. Dukkha (suffering): Those with discriminatory wisdom know that all life is suffering (Sutra 2.15³ )
2. Heya-hetu (cause of suffering): Ignorance that causes one to identify the pure soul with the ego and intellect is the cause of suffering (Sutra 2.17⁴, 2.24⁵)
3. Hāna (removal of dukkha): By removing this identification, dukkha can be removed (Sutra 2.25⁶)
4. Hānopāya (technique of removal): Uninterrupted discriminative wisdom is the means of eliminating suffering (Sutra 2.26⁷)

As we see in sutra 2.26 above, the means to end suffering is by developing “viveka khyati” (discriminative wisdom). Viveka here implies that one understands that the apparent union between Purusha and Prakriti is caused by ignorance (avidyā) and that in reality both Purusha and Prakriti are separate and independent of each other. Patanjali uses the term “kaivalya” for the state where Purusha gains total independence from any bondage with Prakriti.

How does one develop this ‘viveka khyāti” (discriminatory wisdom)? Patanjali, in sutra 2.28⁸, introduces the eight limbs of yoga:

“By the practice of the limbs of Yoga, the impurities dwindle away and there dawns the light of wisdom, leading to discriminative discernment (viveka khyāti).”

In sutra 2.29⁹ we get a listing of the eight limbs of yoga:

“yama (Restraint), niyama (Observance), āsana (Posture), prāṇāyāma (Regulation Of Breath), pratyāhāra (Withholding of Senses), dhāraṇā (Fixity), dhyāna (Meditation) And Samādhi (Perfect Concentration) Are The Eight limbs Of Yoga.” Subsequent sutras describe each of these eight limbs.

As we see above, the concept of jnana (knowledge or wisdom) is represented by the term “viveka-khyāti” (discriminatory wisdom) by Patanjali. Another term used by Patanjali which has a similar meaning is “prajna”. As we study the sutras further, we learn that even the state of “viveka khyati” or prajna is considered as a vritti (fluctuation) in the mind. Even this must be removed (sutra 1.51¹⁰) to attain the final state of “nothingness” (nirodha) in the mind which leads to the state of kaivalya (liberation).

Concluding remarks

As mentioned earlier, the concept of Jnana Yoga is primarily discussed in the context of Vedanta philosophy. However, as we see in this article, very similar concepts are also discussed in the philosophy of Samkhya and Yoga. In all these systems of philosophy, the final goal is to achieve a state of liberation from the apparent bondage between the soul (ātmā or Purusha), thus ending the cycle of transmigration. In the non-dual Vedanata philosophy, it implies oneness of the individual soul (ātmā) and the supreme consciousness (Brahman). In the philosophy of Samkhya and Yoga, it implies a realization of the separation between Purusha and Prakriti (called the state of Kaivalya).

Notes

[1] दुःखत्रयाभिघाताज्जिज्ञासा तदभिघातके हेतौ । दृष्टे साऽपार्था चेन्नैकान्तात्यन्ततोऽभावात् ॥१ ॥
duḥkhatrayābhighātājjijñāsā tadabhighātake hetau । dṛṣṭe sā’pārthā cennaikāntātyantato’bhāvāt ॥1 ॥
From the torment caused by the three kinds of suffering, a desire arises for inquiry into the means of terminating this suffering. If it is said that this desire is superfluous since visible means exist, we reply, not so; because these visible means provide a solution which lacks certainty and permanency. (karika 1)

[2] दृष्टवदानुश्रविकः स ह्यविशुद्धिक्षयातिशययुक्तः । तद्विपरीतः श्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तज्ञविज्ञानात् ॥ २॥
dṛṣṭavadānuśravikaḥ sa hyaviśuddhikṣayātiśayayuktaḥ । tadviparītaḥ śreyān vyaktāvyaktajñavijñānāt ॥ 2॥
Similar to the obvious means, the means prescribed in the scriptures (vedas) are also ineffective as they are linked with impurity, decay and excess. The means contrary to both, derived from the discriminatory knowledge of the Manifest, Unmanifest and the Knower (soul/Purusha), are superior. (karika 2)

[3] परिणामतापसंस्कारदुःखैर्गुणवृत्तिविरोधाच्च दुःखमेव सर्वं विवेकिनः॥१५॥ Pariṇāma tāpa saṁskāra duḥkhaiḥ guṇa-vr̥tti-virodhācca duḥkham-eva sarvaṁ vivekinaḥ ॥15॥
To one of discrimination, everything is painful indeed, due to its consequences: the anxiety and fear over losing what is gained; the resulting impressions left in the mind to create renewed cravings; and the constant conflict among the three gunas and the vrittis, which control the mind. (sutra 2.15)

[4] द्रष्टृदृश्ययोः संयोगो हेयहेतुः॥१७॥ draṣṭr̥-dr̥śyayoḥ saṁyogo heyahetuḥ ॥17॥
The cause of that avoidable suffering is the union of the Seer (Purusha) and the seen (Prakriti, or Nature). (sutra 2.17)

[5] तस्य हेतुरविद्या॥२४॥ tasya hetur-avidyā ॥24॥
The cause of this union is ignorance. (sutra 2.24)

[6] तदभावात् संयोगाभावो हानं तद् दृशेः कैवल्यम्॥२५॥ tad-abhāvāt-saṁyoga-abhāvo hānaṁ taddr̥śeḥ kaivalyam ॥25॥
Without this ignorance, no such union occurs. This is called “hānaṁ” or the state free of suffering which leads to the independence or liberation (kaivalyam) of the Seer (purusha). (sutra 2.25)

[7] विवेकख्यातिरविप्लवा हानोपायः॥२६॥ viveka-khyātir-aviplavā hānopāyaḥ ॥26॥
Uninterrupted discriminative discernment is the means for its (of suffering) removal. (sutra 2.26)

[8] योगाङ्गाऽनुष्ठानादशुद्धिक्षये ज्ञानदीप्तिराविवेकख्यातेः॥२८॥ yoga-aṅga-anuṣṭhānād-aśuddhi-kṣaye jñāna-dīptir-āviveka-khyāteḥ ॥28॥
By the practice of the limbs of Yoga, the impurities dwindle away and there dawns the light of wisdom, leading to discriminative discernment. (sutra 2.28)

[9] यमनियमासनप्राणायामप्रत्याहारधारणाध्यानसमाधयोऽष्टावङ्गानि॥२९॥ yama niyama-āsana prāṇāyāma pratyāhāra dhāraṇā dhyāna samādhayo-‘ṣṭāvaṅgāni ॥29॥
The eight limbs of Yoga are:
1) yama (abstinence), 2) niyama (observance). 3) asana (posture), 4) pranayama (breath control), 5) pratyahara (sense withdrawal), 6) dharana (concentration), 7) dhyana (meditation), 8) samadhi (contemplation, absorption or super-conscious state) (sutra 2.29)

[10] तस्यापि निरोधे सर्वनिरोधान्निर्बीजः समाधिः॥५१॥ tasyāpi nirodhe sarva-nirodhān-nirbījaḥ samādhiḥ ॥51॥
When even this impression (of the wisdom called prajna) is wiped out, every impression is totally wiped out and there is nirbija [seedless] samadhi. (sutra 1.51)