Introduction
We all seek happiness in life. How we define happiness and what means we use to attain that happiness is an individual choice. Most of us seem to identify happiness with material gains achieved through fulfilment of material desires. Material desires can span the whole spectrum of attainments – getting married to the right individual, getting a child, having a certain amount of wealth, possessions like house, clothes, bank balance, real estate etc. and the list is literally unending. The problem with this approach, as we know from our experience is, that the desires are never-ending. When one is fulfilled, another one, maybe a little more of the same or in a modified form, raises its head. Now we are busy fulfilling the “upgraded” desire. Since it is impossible to fulfil all our desires, we end up having mental issues like stress, anxiety, depression, guilt feelings etc.
Our ancient scriptures, which contain wisdom revealed to the sages (aka rishis) in their deep states of meditation, provide us guidance on how to lead a life free of strife and stress. They do not deny the need for material possessions for our day-to-day living. We need the basic necessities of life – food, clothing, shelter, transpiration etc. However, the main goal of life according to these sages is to follow a spiritual path that will ultimately lead to freedom and liberation from this constant cycle of birth and death.
To lead a life of fulfilment, leading to final liberation, our ancient texts talk about the four puruṣārthas (pursuits of human endeavor) of life. The word puruṣārtha (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite of two Sanskrit words – puruṣa and artha. In common parlance, puruṣa means a man. However, in the context of Yoga and Samkhya philosophy it means the pure consciousness, or the soul. In the first sense, puruṣārtha may mean human pursuit, or the goal of human life. In the second sense, the word may mean “endeavor to attain final liberation”.
The four puruṣārthas mentioned are: dharma (धर्म), artha (अर्थ ), kama (काम) and moksha (मोक्ष).
Let us take a look at each of these puruṣārthas.
Dharma
Dharma is a central theme in both Hinduism and Buddhism. It has many different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. At its basic level, it means the essential, inherent nature of things. For example, the “dharma” of fire is to burn or provide heat. The laws that govern the functioning of the universe are also termed dharma. At an individual level, it may represent one’s duty. It also refers to a sense of righteousness, virtue, following moral and ethical principles that can lead one to act and behave in the proper manner.
At a cosmic level, dharma represents the cosmic laws that govern the functioning of the universe, movement of the planets and galaxies, essentially all aspects of our existence. It is the individual dharma to help maintain this cosmic dharma so as to maintain balance and harmony at the cosmic level.
From a practical point of view, following one’s dharma can bring stability and order in life, a life that is virtuous and harmonious with the universe.
In the Bhagavad Gita there is a verse (verse 3.35) which extols the value of performing one’s own dharma:
BG 3.35: “It is far better to perform one’s natural prescribed duty, though tinged with faults, than to perform another’s prescribed duty, though perfectly. In fact, it is preferable to die in the discharge of one’s duty, than to follow the path of another, which is fraught with danger.”
Of course, the verse implies that one knows what one’s dharma is which could be a challenge in itself. For that, we need some more self-analysis and study to establish our dharma.
Artha
In the word purushartha, we saw that the word artha means the pursuit or goal of life. In the present context, however, artha usually means material prosperity. It fulfils our need for security at the economical and social levels. We need material prosperity to fulfil personal needs as well as to help others in need. It is emphasized in our texts that the pursuit of artha should follow the guidelines imposed by our own dharma. That means we should not violate our values of righteousness and follow the principles of dharma given in our scriptures while pursuing material wealth. Of course, as given in our texts, our main goal is to seek spiritual wealth deep inside us. Having attained that spiritual prosperity, we will have no need to run after amassing material possessions.
Kama
Our behavior and actions are predominantly driven by our desire for pleasure which is mainly guided by our need for sensual satisfaction. Of course, our scriptures recognize our basic needs for sense gratification. Sense pleasure can relate to music, art, desires pertaining to opposite sex, love for family members etc. Fulfilment of these desires can bring joy and a sense of gratification. However, as stated in the case of artha earlier, pursuit of kama should also be in resonance with our own dharma. We should not pursue sense gratification while violating our values of righteousness and social commitment. When we don’t follow the footsteps of our dharma, excessive indulgence in kama can lead to addiction, greed, lust which can further lead to anger, jealousy and violence. From a spiritual perspective, the highest form of kama is to merge with the divine and attain final liberation.
Moksha
Moksha (liberation) is the ultimate purpose of human life. All Vedic and Upanishadic texts talk about the pursuit of moksha attaining which one is no longer bound by the continuous cycle of birth and death (called Samsara). Other terms that are frequently used for the concept of moksha are: self-realization, removal of ignorance (avidya), liberation, freedom, attaining the state of pure consciousness, becoming one with the supreme being etc. When moksha is attained, there is no feeling of insecurity or a sense of lack. One feels complete, fulfilled and blissful.
In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali uses the term “kaivalya” to denote the state wherein one has realized that Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (material universe) are two separate, independent entities. This state leads to freedom from bondage with the elements of Prakriti.
Scriptural reference
Purushartha as comprising dharma, artha, kama and moksha, are mentioned in many of the texts that talk about the Hindu way of life. However, from the point of view of finding it in the Vedas or the Upanishads, the exact reference is found only in couple of minor Upanishads.
Surya Upanishad: “Now we shall expound mantras of Atharva Veda in relation to the Sun. The seer of this Atharva Angirasa mantra is Brahma, meter Gayatri, Aditya the deity, ‘HamsaH so’ham with Agni and Narayana is the seed, the power is hrillekha or hrim, the pin is the power in the process of unfolding the sky etc., the application is its use in repetition for winning the four human goals (viz. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha).”
In this verse also, only the word purushartha is mentioned without listing the four pursuits individually. It is perhaps assumed that the reader is already familiar with the four purusharthas.
Another minor upanishad, Ganapati Upanishad, mentions the four pursuits without mentioning the word purushartha: ” 13.8: Studying (this text) everywhere (i.e. in all situations) will remove the Obstacles, … 13.9: … (And) the Devotee will obtain Dharma, Artha (Prosperity), Kama (Right Desires fulfilled) and (finally) Moksha (Liberation by discovering the deeper consciousness).”
Both the great epics of Inida, Ramayana and Mahabharata, contain reference to the first three of these pursuits – dharma, artha, and kama – at various places.
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